European Union
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European Union

Ð•Ð²Ñ€Ð¾Ð¿ÐµÐ¹Ñ�ÐºÐ¸ Ñ�ÑŠÑŽÐ· (Bulgarian)
Evropská unie (Czech)
Den Europæiske Union (Danish)
Europese Unie (Dutch)
Euroopa Liit (Estonian)
Euroopan unioni (Finnish)
Union européenne (French)
Europäische Union (German)
Î•Ï…Ï�Ï‰Ï€Î±ÏŠÎºÎ® ÎˆÎ½Ï‰ÏƒÎ· (Greek)
Európai Unió (Hungarian)
An tAontas Eorpach (Irish)
Unione Europea (Italian)
Eiropas Savien+ba (Latvian)
Europos Sjunga (Lithuanian)
L-Unjoni Ewropea (Maltese)
Unia Europejska (Polish)
União Europeia (Portuguese)
Uniunea European (Romanian)
Európska únia (Slovak)
Evropska unija (Slovene)
Unión Europea (Spanish)
Europeiska unionen (Swedish)

:

Flag

Motto: United in diversity1. [1]2. [2]3. [3]

Anthem: Ode to Joy
|  Anthem of European UnionOde to Joy2. [2] (orchestral)

Political centres  |  Brussels
Luxembourg
Strasbourg

Official languages: 23Bulgarian
Czech
Danish
Dutch
English
Estonian
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Hungarian
Irish
Italian
Latvian
Lithuanian
Maltese
Polish
Portuguese
Romanian
Slovak
Slovene
Spanish
Swedish

Demonym: European4. [4]

Member States  |  27 Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom

Leaders:

-   |  European Council  |  Herman Van Rompuy

-   |  Commission  |  José Manuel Barroso

-   |  Parliament  |  Jerzy Buzek

-   |  Council of Ministers  |  Hungary

Establishment:

-   |  Paris Treaty  |  23 July 1952

-   |  Rome Treaty  |  1 January 1958

-   |  Maastricht Treaty  |  1 November 1993

-   |  Lisbon Treaty  |  1 December 2009

Area:

-   |  Total  |  4,324,782 km^2
1,669,807 sq mi

-   |  Water (%)  |  3.08

Population:

-   |  2010 estimate  |  501,064,2115. [5]

-   |  Density  |  115.9/km^2
300.1/sq mi

GDP (PPP)  |  2009 (IMF) estimate

-   |  Total  |  $14.793 trillion

-   |  Per capita  |  $29,729

GDP (nominal)  |  2009 (IMF) estimate

-   |  Total  |  $16.447 trillion

-   |  Per capita  |  $33,052

Gini (2009)  |  30.7 (EU25)6. [6] (High)

HDI (2007)  |  0.937 (High)

Currency: Euro + 10 + 2Euro (â‚¬) (EUR) (de jure)
----
National currencies
British pound (£) (GBP)
Bulgarian lev (Ð»Ð²) (BGN)
Czech koruna (K ) (CZK)
Danish krone (kr) (DKK)
Hungarian forint (Ft) (HUF)
Latvian lats (Ls) (LVL)
Lithuanian litas (Lt) (LTL)
Polish zBoty (zB) (PLN)
Romanian leu (RON)
Swedish krona (kr) (SEK)
2 more currencies in special territories where EU law applies

Time zone: (UTC+0 to +2)

-   |  Summer (DST)  |   (UTC+1 to +37. [nb 1])

Internet TLD: .eu8. [nb 2]

Website
europa.eu

Calling code: See list

The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states which are located primarily in Europe.9. [7] The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC) formed by six countries in the 1950s. In the intervening years the EU has grown, in size, by the accession of new member states and, in power, by the addition of policy areas to its remit. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union under its current name in 1993.10. [8] The last amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.

The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmentally made decisions negotiated by the member states.11. [9]12. [10]13. [11] Important institutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens.

The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states including the abolition of passport controls within the Schengen area.14. [12] It ensures the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital,15. [13] enacts legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintains common policies on trade,16. [14] agriculture,17. [15] fisheries and regional development.18. [16] A monetary union, the eurozone, was established in 1999 and is currently composed of seventeen member states. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy the EU has developed a limited role in external relations and defence. Permanent diplomatic missions have been established around the world and the EU is represented at the United Nations, the WTO, the G8 and the G-20.

With a population of 500 million inhabitants,19. [17] the EU generated an estimated 21% (US$ 14.8 trillion) share of the global economy (GDP PPP) in 2009.20. [18] As a trading bloc the EU accounts for 20% of global imports and exports.

Robert Schuman proposing the Coal and Steel Community on 9 May 1950.

The 1957 Rome Treaty created two additional European Communities, most notably the European Economic Community.

After World War II, moves towards European integration were seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent.21. [19] One such attempt to unite Europeans was the European Coal and Steel Community which, while having the modest aim of centralised control of the previously national coal and steel industries of its member states, was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe".22. [20]

The originators and supporters of the Community include Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, Paul Henri Spaak, and Alcide De Gasperi. The founding members of the Community were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.23. [21]

In 1957, six countries signed the Treaties of Rome, which extended the earlier cooperation within the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and created the European Economic Community, (EEC) establishing a customs union and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear energy. The treaty came into force in 1958.23. [21]

The two new communities were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority". The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Etienne Hirsch. Euratom would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.24. [22]25. [23]26. [24]

Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached and hence in 1967 the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels. It came into force on 1 July 1967 and created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities (EC), although commonly just as the European Community.27. [25]28. [26] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).29. [27]

The Iron Curtain's fall in 1989 enabled eastward enlargement. (Berlin Wall)

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland which later left the Community in 1985), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.30. [28] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum and so Norway remained outside. In 1979, the first direct, democratic elections to the European Parliament were held.31. [29]

Greece joined in 1981, and Spain with Portugal in 1986.32. [30] In 1985, the Schengen Agreement led the way toward the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.33. [31] In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the Community34. [32] and the Single European Act was signed.

In 1990, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a newly united Germany.35. [33] With enlargement towards Eastern and Central Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the European Union were agreed.
Main articles: History of the European Union (1993–2004) and History of the European Union (2004 onwards)

The introduction of the euro in 2002 replaced several national currencies.

The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993,10. [8] and in 1995 Austria, Sweden, and Finland joined the newly established EU. In 2002, euro notes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass seventeen countries. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Malta, Cyprus, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary joined the Union.36. [34]

On 1 January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria became the EU's newest members. In the same year Slovenia adopted the euro,36. [34] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009 and by Estonia in 2011. In June 2009, the 2009 Parliament elections were held leading to a renewal of Barroso's Commission Presidency, and in July 2009 Iceland formally applied for EU membership.

On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with legal personality, and it created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which is Herman Van Rompuy, and a strengthened High Representative, Catherine Ashton.37. [35]

Signed
In force
Document  |  1948
1948
Brussels Treaty  |  1951
1952
Paris Treaty  |  1954
1955
Modified Brussels Treaty  |  1957
1958
Rome Treaties  |  1965
1967
Merger Treaty  |  1975
N/A
European Council conclusion  |  1986
1987
Single European Act  |  1992
1993
Maastricht Treaty  |  1997
1999
Amsterdam Treaty  |  2001
2003
Nice Treaty  |  2007
2009
Lisbon Treaty  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |

|     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |

Three pillars of the European Union:  |

European Communities:  |

|  European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |

|  European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)  |  Treaty expired in 2002  |    |  European Union (EU)  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |

|     |    |  European Economic Community (EEC)  |    |  European Community (EC)

|     |  TREVI  |  Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)  |

|  Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC)

|  European Political Cooperation (EPC)  |  Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

Unconsolidated bodies  |  Western European Union (WEU)  |     |

Treaty terminated in 2010  |

|     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |  v â€¢ d â€¢ e
See also: Special Member State territories and the European Union, Enlargement of the European Union, Future enlargement of the European Union, and Withdrawal from the European Union

The continental territories of the member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession.

AlbaniaAustriaBelarusBelgium
Bos.
& Herz.
BulgariaCroatiaCyprusCzech
Rep.DenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIceland
Ireland
ItalyLatviaLithuaniaLuxembourgMac.Maltaâ†’MoldovaMont.NetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaRussiaSerbiaSlovakiaSloveniaSpainSweden Switz-
erlandTurkeyUkraine
United
Kingdom

The European Union is composed of 27 sovereign Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.38. [36] The Union's membership has grown from the original six founding states—Belgium, France, (then-West) Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands—to the present day 27 by successive enlargements as countries acceded to the treaties and by doing so, pooled their sovereignty in exchange for representation in the institutions.39. [37] To join the EU a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.40. [38] No member state has ever left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.41. [39] The Lisbon Treaty now provides a clause dealing with how a member leaves the EU.42. [40]

There are five official candidate countries, Croatia, Iceland, Macedonia,43. [nb 3]44. [41] Montenegro and Turkey. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.45. [42] Kosovo is also listed as a potential candidate but the European Commission does not list it as an independent country because not all member states recognise it as an independent country separate from Serbia.46. [43]

Four Western European countries that are not EU members have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland (a candidate country for EU membership), Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.47. [44]48. [45] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of cooperation.49. [46]

Mont Blanc in the Alps is the highest peak in the EU.

The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with some exceptions, outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as parts of the continent are outside the EU. Some parts of member states are not part of the EU, despite forming part of the European continent (for example the Isle of Man and Channel Islands (three Crown Dependencies), and the Faroe Islands (a territory of Denmark)). The island country of Cyprus, a member of the EU, is closer to Turkey than to continental Europe and is often considered part of Asia.50. [47]51. [48] Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland and Aruba). Some overseas territories are part of the EU even though geographically not part of Europe, such as the Azores, French Guiana, Martinique and Melilla. As well, although being technically part of the EU,52. [49] EU law is suspended in Northern Cyprus as it is under the de facto control of the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, a self-proclaimed state that is recognised only by Turkey.

The EU's climate is influenced by its 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline. (Crete)

The EU's member states cover an area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).53. [nb 4] The EU is larger in area than all but six countries, and its highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.54. [50] The lowest point in the EU is Zuidplaspolder in the Netherlands, at âˆ’7 m (âˆ’23 ft) below sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. The EU has the world's second-longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states share land borders with 19 non-member states for a total of 12,441 kilometres (7,730 mi), the fifth-longest border in the world.12. [10]55. [51]56. [52]

Including the overseas territories of member states, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the people lives in areas with a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Eastern Europe).57. [53]

The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants (and growing, projected to be 90% in 7 states by 2020) living in urban areas. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux. An increasing percentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas. In some cases this urban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into a region.58. [54]

The EU operates solely within those competencies conferred on it upon the treaties and according to the principle of subsidiarity (which dictates that action by the EU should only be taken where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms, generally speaking they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures, and those which specifically require national implementation measures.59. [55]
Main articles: EU institutions and Legislature of the European Union
The European Union has of the seven institutions: the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Council, the European Central Bank, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors. Competencies in scrutinising and amending legislation are divided between the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union while executive tasks are carried out by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is governed by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.

President of the European Council, Herman Van Rompuy

The European Council gives direction to the EU, and convenes at least four times a year. It comprises the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state; either its head of state or head of government. The European Council has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".60. [56] It is actively involved in the negotiation of the treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.

The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective Head of State" and ratifies important documents (e.g. international agreements and treaties).61. [57]

On 19 November 2009, Herman Van Rompuy was chosen as the first permanent President of the European Council. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force and he assumed office. Ensuring the external representation of the EU,62. [58] driving consensus and settling divergences among members are tasks for the President both during the convocations of the European Council and in the time periods between them. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent from the EU.

Commission President José Manuel Barroso

The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. The Commission operates as a cabinet government, with 27 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.

One of the 27 is the Commission President (currently José Manuel Durão Barroso) appointed by the European Council. The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President, and then the 27 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who is ex-officio Vice President of the Commission.63. [59]

The European Parliament building in Strasbourg

The European Parliament (EP) forms one half of the EU's legislature (the other half is the Council of the European Union, see below). The 736 (soon to be 751) Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation to the share of votes collected by each political party. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.64. [60]

The ordinary legislative procedure of the European Union.

The Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. Finally, the Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament carries out the role of speaker in parliament and represents it externally. The EP President and Vice Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.65. [61]

The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"66. [62] and sometimes referred to as the "Council of Ministers"67. [63]) forms the other half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different compositions, it is considered to be one single body.68. [64] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

The total expenditure of the European Union in 2006.69. [65]

The twenty-seven member state EU had an agreed budget of â‚¬120.7 billion for the year 2007 and â‚¬864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,70. [66] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the United Kingdom's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be â‚¬759 billion, and France was estimated to have spent â‚¬801 billion. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.71. [67]

In the 2010 budget of â‚¬141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is cohesion & competitiveness with around 45% of the total budget.72. [68] Next comes agriculture with approximately 31% of the total.72. [68] Rural development, environment and fisheries takes up around 11%.72. [68] Administration accounts for around 6%.72. [68] The EU as a global partner and citizenship, freedom, security and justice bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.72. [68]

The EU fifth institution, the European Court of Auditors ensures that the budget of the European Union has been properly accounted for. The court provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament. The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.73. [69]

The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the European European Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".74. [70] The Court has not given an unqualified approval of the Union's accounts since 1993.75. [71] In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.76. [72] The EC estimated that the financial impact of irregularities was â‚¬1,863 million.77. [73]

EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.78. [74]

That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.

The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories:

As outlined in Part I, Title I of the consolidated Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union:        view â€¢ talk â€¢ edit

Exclusive competence:

"The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements when provided for in a Union legislative act."

- the customs union

- the establishing of the competition rules necessary for the functioning of the internal market

- monetary policy for the Member States whose currency is the euro

- the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries policy

- common commercial policy

|
Shared competence:

"Member States cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so."  |  "Union exercise of competence shall not result in Member States being prevented from exercising theirs in:"

- the internal market

- social policy, for the aspects defined in this Treaty

- economic, social and territorial cohesion

- agriculture and fisheries, excluding the conservation of marine biological resources

- environment

- consumer protection

- transport

- trans-European networks

- energy

- the area of freedom, security and justice

- common safety concerns in public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty

|

- research, technological development and space

- development cooperation, humanitarian aid

"The Union coordinates Member States policies or implements supplemental to theirs common policies, not covered elsewhere"

- coordination of economic, employment and social policies

- common foreign, security and defence policies

|
Supporting competence:

"The Union can carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement Member States' actions in:"

- the protection and improvement of human health

- industry

- culture

- tourism

- education, youth, sport and vocational training

- civil protection (disaster prevention)

- administrative cooperation

Further information: EU Law, EU treaties, and Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

The last amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU came into force in 2009 and was the Lisbon Treaty.

The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.79. [75] These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation80. [nb 5] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.81. [nb 6] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.82. [76]

Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.83. [nb 7]

The Court of Justice in Luxembourg is the highest court in the European Union in matters of EU law.

The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of three courts: the Court of Justice, the General Court, and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal. Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU.84. [77]

The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states.85. [78] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,86. [79] and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.87. [80] Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.88. [81]

Article 1 and 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union:
"Human dignity is inviolable. It must be respected and protected.
Everyone has the right to life. No one shall be condemned to death penalty, or executed."

The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."89. [82]

In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the European Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."90. [83] The European Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.91. [84] The Charter of Fundamental Rights was drawn up in 2000. Although originally not legally binding the Charter was frequently cited by the EU's courts as encapsulating rights which the courts had long recognised as the fundamental principles of EU law.

EU Member States have a standardised passport design with the name of the member state, Coat of Arms and with the words "European Union" given in their official language(s). (Ireland model)

Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,92. [nb 8] previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state93. [nb 9] nor had the competence to accede.94. [nb 10] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the latter binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the former formally permits it.

The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its world wide abolition.95. [85] Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.96. [86]

The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,97. [nb 11] and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.80. [nb 5] Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.98. [nb 12] When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.

Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in Competition Law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.99. [87]
Further information: Area of freedom, security and justice

The Schengen Area comprises most member states ensuring open borders.

Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces,100. [88] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,101. [89] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.102. [90] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System14. [12] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This cooperation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.

Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,103. [91] family law,104. [92] asylum law,105. [93] and criminal justice.106. [94] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.107. [nb 13] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.108. [nb 14] By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.109. [nb 15]
Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union, Common Foreign and Security Policy, and European External Action Service

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Catherine Ashton.

Foreign policy cooperation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial Policy.110. [95] Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.111. [96] The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.112. [97] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP makes disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq,113. [98] not uncommon.

The co-ordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Catherine Ashton) who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department114. [99] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.115. [100] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.116. [101]

The Eurofighter is built by a consortium of four EU countries.

The European Union does not have one unified military. The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a strong military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.119. [104] Twenty-one EU members are members of NATO120. [105] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.121. [106] However the compatibility of their neutrality with EU membership is questioned (including by the Prime Minister of Finland)122. [107] and with mutual solidarity in the event of disasters, terrorist attacks and armed aggression covered by TEU Article 42 (7) and TFEU Article 222 of the EU treaties; the Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.123. [108]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent more than â‚¬48 billion (US$69 billion) on defence in 2009, placing it third in the world after USA and China, while France spent â‚¬47 billion (US$67.31 billion), the fourth largest. Together, the United Kingdom and France account for 45 per cent of Europe's defence budget, 50 per cent of its military capacity and 70 per cent of all spending in military research and development.124. [109] In 2000, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany accounted for 97% of the total military research budget of the then 15 EU member states.125. [110]

CSDP forces have been deployed on peacekeeping duties in parts of the Balkans and Africa.

Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.126. [111]

EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East.127. [112] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.128. [113] In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence cooperation is increasingly relying on great power cooperation.129. [114]
Further information: ECHO (European Commission)

Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world.

The European Commissions Humanitarian Aid Office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2006 its budget amounted to â‚¬671 million, 48% of which went to the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries.130. [115] Counting the EU's own contributions and those of its member states together, the EU is the largest aid donor in the world.131. [116]

The EU's aid has previously been criticised by the eurosceptic think-tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives.132. [117] Furthermore, some charities such as ActionAid have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students, and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the EU as a whole did not reach its internal aid target in 2006133. [118] and is expected not to reach the international target of 0.7% of gross national income until 2015.134. [119]

However, four countries have reached that target, most notably Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Denmark.131. [116] In 2005 EU aid was 0.34% of the GNP which was higher than that of either the United States or Japan.135. [120] The previous commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect, and on humanitarian principles.136. [121]

The top ten economies by GDP PPP in international dollars
with the EU being counted as a sinle entity (IMF, 2009).137. [122]

Since its inception, the EU had as a core objective the establishment of a single market across the territory of all its member states. Currently, a single currency is in use between the 17 members of the eurozone.138. [123]139. [124] In 2009 the EU generated an estimated 21% (US$ 14.8 trillion) share of the global economy (PPP),20. [18] making it the largest economy in the world by GDP (PPP) It is also the largest exporter,140. [125] and largest importer141. [126] of goods and services, and the biggest trading partner to several large countries such as China and India.142. [127]143. [128]144. [129]

Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently renamed the single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU,139. [124] and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.47. [44] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.145. [130]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.146. [131] Until the drive towards Economic and Monetary Union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.147. [132]

The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60–70% of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.148. [133] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.
See also: Euro, Maastricht criteria, Eurozone, and Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union

The European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) is one of 161 Fortune Global 500 companies with their headquarters in the EU. (A380 airliner from Airbus)

The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.154. [nb 17] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.155. [138]

The Competition Commissioner, currently Joaquín Almunia, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations.156. [139] For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority.157. [140] Another high profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over â‚¬777 million following nine years of legal action.158. [141]

EU energy production:

46% of total EU primary energy use:

Nuclear energy159. [nb 18]  |  29.3%

Coal & lignite  |  21.9%

Gas  |  19.4%

Renewable energy  |  14.6%

Oil  |  13.4%

Other  |  1.4%

Net imports of energy:

54% of total primary EU energy use:

Oil & petroleum products  |  60.2%

Gas  |  26.4%

Other  |  13.4%

In 2006, the 27 member states of the EU had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).160. [142] Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.160. [142] In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.161. [143]

The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.162. [144]

The EU currently imports 82% of its oil, 57% of its gas163. [145] and 97.48% of its uranium161. [143] demands. There are concerns that Europe's dependence on Russian energy is endangering the Union and its member countries. The EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply.164. [146]
Further information: European Commissioner for Transport and European Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship

The Öresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of the Trans-European Networks.

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.165. [147]166. [148]

The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.167. [149] The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition: at Poland's accession to the EU, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards, demanding approximately â‚¬17 billion.168. [150]

EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure. (Vineyard in Spain)

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the oldest policies of the European Community, and was one of its core aims.169. [151] The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.170. [nb 19] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and still accounts for around 35%.169. [151]

The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction, resulting in so-called butter mountains and wine lakes. These were intervention stores of produce bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. In order to dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their produce outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers outside of Europe, especially those in the developing world.171. [152]

The overproduction has also been criticised for encouraging environmentally unfriendly intensive farming methods.171. [152] Supporters of CAP say that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living, in what would otherwise be an economically unviable way of life. However, the EU's small farmers receive only 8% of CAP's available subsidies.171. [152]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas (by the McSharry reforms in 1992) and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels, while maintaining agricultural income levels.169. [151] One of these reforms entailed the abolition of the EU's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.172. [153]
Further information: Regional policy of the European Union

EU funds finance such infrastructure projects as the Prague–Berlin motorway (D8/A17) (pictured here near Lovosice in the Czech Republic).

There are substantial economical disparities across the EU. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (271 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2007, from 26% of the EU27 average in the region of Severozapaden in Bulgaria, to 334% of the average in Inner London in the United Kingdom. On the high end, Inner London has â‚¬83,200 PPP per capita, Luxembourg â‚¬68,500, and Bruxelles-Cap â‚¬55,000, while the poorest regions, are Severozapaden with â‚¬6,400 PPP per capita, Nord-Est and Severen tsentralen with â‚¬6,600 and Yuzhen tsentralen with â‚¬6,800.173. [154] Compared to the EU average, the United States GDP per capita is 35% higher and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.174. [155]

There are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds to support development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the new member states of East-Central Europe.175. [156] Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the former USSR Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. The EU Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) sponsors research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.176. [157]
Further information: European Commissioner for the Environment and European Climate Change Programme

The Commission has protected the Rospuda valley in Poland.

The first environmental policy of the European Community was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water Framework Directive is an example of a water policy, aiming for rivers, lakes, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe.177. [158] In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.178. [159]

The Danube Delta in Romania with its diverse bird population is a "Special Protection Area" created by EU directives.

In 2007, member states agreed that the EU is to use 20% renewable energy in the future and that it has to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.179. [160] This includes measures that in 2020, 10% of the overall fuel quantity used by cars and trucks in EU 27 should be running on renewable energy such as biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves of an important industrialised region to fight global warming.180. [161]

The percentage of Europeans in each member state who believe in "a God"202. [182]

The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".201. [181] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or "God" or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.203. [183]

Christians in the EU are divided among followers of Roman Catholicism, numerous Protestant denominations (especially in northern Europe), and Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic (in south eastern Europe). Other religions, such as Islam and Judaism, are also represented in the EU population. As of 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million,204. [184] and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.205. [185]

Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52% of EU citizens believed in a god, 27% in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18% had no form of belief.202. [182] Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years.206. [186] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).202. [182] The most religious countries are Malta (95%; predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of the citizens believing in God (both predominantly Eastern Orthodox). Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 with a basic education, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale (57%)."202. [182]
Further information: Cultural policies of the European Union and Sport policies of the European Union

The Hungarian city of Pécs is one of three European Capitals of Culture in 2010.

Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.207. [187] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,207. [187] the European Cultural Month event,208. [188] the Media Plus programme,209. [189] orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra210. [190] and the European Capital of Culture programme – where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of that city.211. [191]

Sport is mainly the responsibility of an individual member states or other international organisations rather than that of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have had an impact on sport, such as the free movement of workers which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.212. [192] Under the Treaty of Lisbon sports were given a special status which exempted this sector from many of the EU's economic rules. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the applications of free market principles to sport which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.213. [193]

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Notes

7. ^ Not including overseas territories

8. ^ .eu is representative of the whole of the EU, member states also have their own TLDs

43. ^ Known by the EU as the"former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM). As of November 2010[update], further advances on accession are dependent on a resolution of a dispute over the name Macedonia with Greece.

53. ^ Figure including the four French overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion), which are an integral part of the EU, but excluding the French overseas collectivities and territories, which are not part of the EU.

80. ^ [a] [b] See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

81. ^ According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen, Eur-Lex . See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.

83. ^ According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 Oct. 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.

92. ^ It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. It should be noted that this is a political and not a legal requirement for membership.

93. ^ The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention), and even now only states may become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe).

94. ^ Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.

97. ^ See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981.

98. ^ To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 27 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115

107. ^ See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

108. ^ See Article 2(7) of the Treaty of Amsterdam on eur-lex.europa.eu

109. ^ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2.12.2000, p. 16–22).

150. ^ In order to meet the euro convergence criteria it is necessary first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, something Sweden has declined to do: "ERM II". Danish Finance Ministry. 20 March 2009. http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx. Retrieved 26 December 2009.

154. ^ Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome

1. 159. ^ Note that although almost all Uranium is imported,
Nuclear Power is considered primary energy produced in the EU

170. ^ Article 39 (ex Article 33) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

195. ^ See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu

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25. ^ A European Atomic Energy Community ena.lu

26. ^ A European Customs Union ena.lu

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89. ^ Article 2, Treaty on European Union (consolidated 01/12/09)

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192. ^ "Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages". EUROPA web portal. http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm. Retrieved 12 October 2009.

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Literature

- Bindi, Federiga, ed. The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing Europe's Role in the World (Brookings Institution Press; 2010) 367 pages; $E.U.'s foreign-policy mechanisms and foreign relations, including with its eastern neighbours.

- Craig, Paul; de Búrca, Gráinne (2007). EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927389-8.

- Kaiser, Wolfram. Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (2007)

- McCormick, John (2007). The European Union: Politics and Policies. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342023.

- Pinder, John, and Simon Usherwood. The European Union: A Very Short Introduction (2008) excerpt and text search

- Rifkin, Jeremy (2004). The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3.

- Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade and Globalisation, 3rd edition. Stocksfield: Anforme. ISBN 1-905504-10-1.

- Staab, Andreas. The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact (2008) excerpt and text search

- Steiner, Josephine; Woods, Lorna; Twigg-Flesner, Christian (2006). EU Law (9th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927959-3.

- Yesilada, Birol A. and David M. Wood. The Emerging European Union (5th ed. 2009)

- Piris, Jean-Claude (2010). Lisbon Treaty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 448. ISBN 9780521197922.

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